HYDROGEN ENERGY PRODUCTION - HISTORY AND FUTURE
DEAR FELLOWS CHAIRESTHAI (=BE HAPPY),
CONTINUING THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND POLITICAL WORK FOR EUROPEAN CITIZENS AND PARTNERS,EPAPHOS CONSULTANCY PARTICIPATED TO THE SUSTAINABLE ENERGY WEEK ,BEING ORGANIZED BY THE EU COMMISSION FROM 24-28 /06/13.
THE LAST PUBLIC EVENT WAS THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE EUROPEAN HYDROGEN ASSOCIATION AT THE PAID BY THE CITIZENS HOUSE OF THE EUROPEAN CITIES ,MUNICIPALITIES AND REGIONS.
DURING THE EVENT IT WAS TRIED TO BE UNDERSTOOD WHY THIS IMPORTANT SECTOR IS STUCK,AT LEAST IN EUROPEAN LANDS.
THE SHARE OF HYDROGEN ENERGY CONTRIBUTION TO THE WHOLE RENEWABLE ENERGY IS LESS THAN 1%,ACCORDING TO HON.CITIZEN AND PRESIDENT OF THE BOARD MR.WILLIAMSON IAN.
WE THANK THE HOSPITALITY OF THIS EUROPEAN ORGANIZATION ,WITH SPECIAL THANKS FOR THE EU COMMISSION'S VERY INTERESTING ANSWERS TO OUR QUESTIONS,ESPECIALLY TO THE INDIRECTLY CONNECTED WAVE ENERGY SECTOR,TO WHICH SOME YEARS AGO WE HAD PROPOSED STRATEGICAL DIRECTIONS,WITHOUT BEING INFORMED FOR THE RESULTS.
TAKING ADVANTAGE OF THIS DISCUSSION IT IS PRESENTED IN A SUMMARIZED WAY HISTORY AND SOME ABILITIES FOR THE SECTOR,PROMISING THAT IN THE FUTURE IT WILL BE POSTED MORE ADVANTAGES ,BUT ALSO TAKING CARE FOR THE MINUS.
THANKS ALL FOR YOUR ATTENTION AND SUPPORT
A.CH.
HISTORY
Hydrogen has received increased attention as an environmentally friendly option to help meet today’s energy needs. The road leading to an understanding of hydrogen’s energy potential presents a fascinating tour through scientific discovery and industrial ingenuity.
1766 - Hydrogen was first identified as a distinct element by British scientist Henry Cavendish after he separated hydrogen gas by reacting zinc metal with hydrochloric acid. In a demonstration to the Royal Society of London, Cavendish applied a spark to hydrogen gas yielding
water. This discovery led to his later finding that water (H2O) is made
of hydrogen and oxygen.
1783 – Jacques Alexander Cesar Charles,a French physicist, launched the first hydrogen balloon flight. Known as "Charliere," the unmanned balloon flew to an altitude of three kilometers. Only
three months later, Charles himself flew the first manned hydrogen balloon.
1788 – Building on the discoveries of Cavendish, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier gave ydrogen its name,which was derived from the Greek words - “hydro” and “genes,”meaning “water” and “born of.”
1800 –English scientists William Nicholson and Sir Anthony Carlisle discovered that applying electric current to water produced hydrogen and oxygen gases. This process was later termed “electrolysis.”
1839 – The fuel cell effect, combining hydrogen and oxygen gases to produce water and an electric current, was discovered by Swiss chemist Christian Friedrich Schoenbein.
1845 – English scientist and judge Sir William Grove demonstrated Schoenbein’s discovery on a practical scale by creating a “gas battery.”
For his achievement he earned the title “Father of the Fuel Cell.”
1920s – German engineer Rudolf Erren converted the internal combustion engines of trucks, buses and submarines to use hydrogen or hydrogen mixtures. British scientist and Marxist writer
J.B.S. Haldane introduced the concept of renewable hydrogen in his paper, Science and the Future, by proposing that ”there will be great power stations where during windy weather the surplus power will be used for the electrolytic decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen.”
1937 – After ten successful trans-Atlantic flights from Germany to the United States, the Hindenburg, a dirigible inflated with hydrogen gas,erupted into flames while landing in Lakewood, New Jersey. See 1997.
1958 – The United States formed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NASA’s space program currently uses the most liquid hydrogen worldwide, primarily for rocket propulsion and as a fuel for fuel cells.
1959 – Francis T. Bacon of Cambridge University in England built the first practical hydrogen-air fuel cell. The 5-kilowatt (kW) system powered a welding machine. He named his fuel cell design the “Bacon Cell.” Later that year, Harry Karl Ihrig, an engineer for the Allis - Chalmers
Manufacturing Company, demonstrated the first fuel cell vehicle: a 20–horsepower tractor. Hydrogen fuel cells, based upon Bacon’s design, have been used to generate on-board electricity, heat and water for astronauts aboard the famous Apollo spacecraft and all subsequent space shuttle missions.
1970 – Electrochemist John O’M. Bockris coined the term “hydrogen economy.” He later published Energy: The Solar-Hydrogen Alternative,describing his envisioned hydrogen economy where cities in the United States could be supplied with solar energy.
1972 – A 1972 Gremlin, modified by The University of California at Los Angeles, entered the 1972 Urban Vehicle Design Competition and won first prize for the lowest tailpipe emissions. Students converted the Gremlin’s internal combustion engine to run on hydrogen supplied
from an onboard tank.
1973 –The OPEC oil embargo and the resulting supply shock suggested that the era of cheap petroleum had ended and that the world needed alternative fuels. The development of hydrogen fuel cells for conventional commercial applications began.
1974 – Professor T. Nejat Veziroglu of the University of Miami, FL,organized The Hydrogen Economy Miami Energy Conference (THEME),the first international conference held to discuss hydrogen energy.
Following the conference, the scientists and engineers who attended the THEME conference formed the International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE).
1977 – International Energy Agency (IEA) was established in response to global oil market disruptions. IEA activities included the research and development of hydrogen energy technologies. The U.S.Department of Energy (DOE) was also created.
1978 – National Science Foundation transferred the Federal Hydrogen R&D Program to the U.S. DOE.
1988 – The Soviet Union Tupolev Design Bureau successfully converted a 164-passenger TU-154 commercial jet to operate one of the jet’s three engines on liquid hydrogen. The maiden flight lasted 21 minutes.
1989 – The National Hydrogen Association (NHA) formed in the United States with ten members. Today, the NHA has nearly 100 members,including representatives from the automobile and aerospace industries, federal, state and local governments, universities,
researchers, utilities and energy providers. The International Organization for Standardization’s Technical Committee for Hydrogen Technologies was also created.
1990 – The world’s first solar powered hydrogen production plant at Solar-Wasserstoff-Bayern, a research and testing facility in southern Germany, became operational. The U.S. Congress passed the Spark M.Matsunaga Hydrogen, Research, Development and Demonstration Act (PL 101-566), which prescribed the formulation of a 5-year management and implementation plan for hydrogen research and development in the United States. The Hydrogen Technical Advisory
Panel (HTAP) was mandated by the Matsunaga Act to ensure consultation on and coordination of hydrogen research.
1991 – Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. begins development of three 30-foot Fuel Cell Test Bed Buses (TBB) as part of their Generation I Bus Program. In 2001, Georgetown finished their second Generation II bus, which uses hydrogen from methanol to power a 100kW fuel cell “engine.”
1992 – The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV), a cooperative R&D program, was established by the Clinton Administration as a joint effort between the government and
automobile manufactures for the research and development of new vehicles technologies and alternative fuels, including hydrogen.
1994 – Daimler Benz demonstrated the NECAR I (New Electric CAR),its first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, at a press conference in Ulm,Germany.
1995 – The Chicago Transit Authority unveiled the first of their three hydrogen fuel cell buses. The small pilot fleet began operation the following year.
1997 – Retired NASA engineer Addison Bain challenged the belief that hydrogen caused the Hindenburg accident. The hydrogen, Bain demonstrated, did not cause the catastrophic fire but rather it was the combination of static electricity and highly flammable material on the skin of the airship. For more information, view the Hydrogen Safety fact sheet.
1998 – Iceland unveiled a plan to create the first hydrogen economy by 2030.
1999 – Europe’s first hydrogen fueling stations were opened in the German cities of
Hamburg and Munich. The Royal Dutch/Shell Company committed to a hydrogen future by forming a hydrogen division. Also, a consortium of Icelandic institutions, headed by the financial group New Business Venture Fund, partnered with Royal Dutch/Shell Group,
DaimlerChrysler (a merger of Daimler Benz and Chrysler) Norsk Hydro to form the Icelandic Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Company,Ltd. to further the hydrogen economy in Iceland.
2001 – Ballard Power Systems launched the world’s first volumeproduced proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell system designed for integration into a wide variety of industrial and
consumer end-product applications.
2002 – Executives from DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company and General Motors Corporation, along with Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham, announced a new cooperative automotive research (CAR) partnership between the U.S.
Department of Energy and the U.S. Council for Automotive Research (USCAR). The program, FreedomCAR, focuses on developing enabling technologies, such as hydrogen fuel cells,
for petroleum-free cars and light trucks.
2003 – President George W. Bush announced in his 2003 State of the Union Address a $1.2 billion hydrogen fuel initiative to develop the technology for commercially viable hydrogenpowered fuel cells, such that “the first car driven by a child born today could be powered by hydrogen and pollution free.” U.S. Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham launched the International
Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy (IPHE) to foster global cooperation in the development of hydrogen technology.
2004 – U.S. Energy Secretary Spencer Abraham announced over
$350-million devoted to hydrogen research and vehicle demonstration projects, nearly one-third of President Bush's commitment. The funding encompasses over 30 lead organizations and more than 100 partners selected through a competitive review process. “I believe that water will one day be employed as fuel, that hydrogen and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or together, will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and light, of an intensity of which coal is not capable.”
Rapid Introduction of Fuel Cell Vehicles toward Practical Use
Following the introduction of fuel cell buses on regular services on the expressway between central Tokyo and Haneda Airport from December 2010, four city gas utilities and nine companies in the automobile manufacturing and energy sectors issued a "Joint Statement on the Release of Fuel Cell Vehicles to the Domestic Market and the Development of Hydrogen Infrastructure" in January 2011. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) (1) are fueled by hydrogen, (2) are driven by a motor that runs on electricity produced by chemical reactions between hydrogen and oxygen, and (3) travel without emitting CO2. Of the 1,280 million tons of greenhouse gas emissions from Japan in fiscal 2008, the transport sector accounted for 16% (about 200 million tons). There are high expectations for FCVs and other types of next-generation vehicle to help create a low carbon society. The Strategic Energy Plan of Japan (which defines national energy policies up to 2030), which was revised in June 2010, states the importance of promoting next-generation vehicles and includes FCVs as a next-generation vehicle to be promoted by the government because of their contribution to global warming prevention, energy security and the competitiveness of Japanese industry. This newsletter contains two articles on FCV projects and describes a related hydrogen town demonstration project in Kitakyushu City. Start of FCV Transport Services between Central Tokyo and Haneda/Narita Airports A Hydrogen Highway Project for connecting central Tokyo with Haneda and Narita Airports via FCV transport services, started on December 16, 2010. There is a single regular FCV limousine bus service each day in both directions between Haneda Airport and Shinjuku Station West Exit, and also between Haneda Airport and Tokyo City Air Terminal. In addition, hired FCV limousine services connect Narita Airport, Haneda Airport and central Tokyo. This project is operated by the Research Association of Hydrogen Supply/Utilization Technology (HySUT)*, and is a part of the Demonstration Program for Establishing a Hydrogen-Based Social System, sponsored by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Mainly for the limousine bus between Haneda Airport and central Tokyo, Tokyo Gas has built the Haneda Hydrogen Station near Haneda Airport, next to a natural gas station for NGVs. At this hydrogen station, hydrogen is reformed from natural gas supplied by city gas pipeline. It is also planned to separate, recover and liquefy the CO2 produced in this process, and to supply it to industry. At another hydrogen station which serves hired FCV limousines between Narita Airport and the city center, hydrogen is supplied by JX Nippon Oil and Energy Corporation and Idemitsu Kosan. High pressure hydrogen gas generated in refineries is filled in hydrogen cylinders and transported by trucks. * Member companies/organizations: Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd., Osaka Gas Co., Ltd., Toho Gas Co., Ltd., Saibu Gas Co., Ltd., JX Nippon Oil and Energy Corporation, Idemitsu Kosan Co., Ltd., Iwatani Corporation, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd., Cosmo Oil Co., Ltd., Showa Shell Sekiyu K.K., Taiyo Nippon Sanso Corporation, Air Liquide Japan Ltd., Mitsubishi Kakoki Kaisha, Ltd., Toyota Motor Corporation, Nissan Motor Co., Ltd., Honda R&D Co., Ltd., and Engineering Advancement Association of Japan Joint Announcement of the Release of Fuel Cell Vehicles to the Domestic Market and the Development of Hydrogen Infrastructure On January 13, 2011, 13 companies including four major city gas utilities, automobile manufacturers (such as Toyota Motor Corporation) and energy sector companies, jointly announced the release of FCVs, as a type of next-generation vehicle, to the domestic market in 2015 and the development of hydrogen supply infrastructure. The contents of the state are as follows:
1.
Automobile manufacturers are significantly reducing the cost of fuel cell systems through technological development. They aim to introduce mass-produced FCV models to the domestic market by 2015, mainly in the four largest cities of Japan (Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka and Fukuoka) and to start selling them to consumers. After initial introduction, further marketing effort will then be made for popularizing FCVs as way of coping with energy and environmental problems.
2.
To kick-start the market for mass-produced FCV models, hydrogen suppliers (city gas utilities, oil companies, etc.) will prepare the initial hydrogen supply infrastructure at about 100 locations by 2015, which will then be expanded in line with forecasted sales of FCVs.
3.
To greatly reduce CO2 emissions from the transport sector, automobile manufacturers and hydrogen suppliers will jointly promote FCVs and hydrogen supply infrastructure throughout Japan. They expect the government to support them through government-private sector partnerships in creating FCV deployment strategies (*) including incentives and public acceptance measures.
*: As a specific initiative for the time being, the 13 private companies will support the initial demand for mass-produced FCVs in the four cities, and will discuss FCV deployment strategies with various stakeholders including local governments, such as the optimal distribution of hydrogen supply infrastructure required for supporting the demand for FCVs.
A subcommittee will be set up in each of the four cities to support these strategies including optimal deployment of hydrogen stations, and prepare specific plans for building the infrastructure. The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry commented: "Recognizing that this joint statement conforms to goals set forth in the Strategic Energy Plan of Japan, METI will take necessary steps to facilitate the launch in 2015 and subsequent nationwide dissemination. Demonstration Begins at Kitakyushu Hydrogen Town On January 15, 2011, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry began distributing hydrogen to multiple users in Kitakyushu City in a demonstration "Hydrogen Town Project." This project is operated by the Research Association of Hydrogen Supply/Utilization Technology (HySUT), is a part of the Demonstration Program for Establishing a Hydrogen-Based Social System. In this project, hydrogen, produced at Nippon Steel Corporation's Yahata Steel Works, is distributed by pipeline to collective housing facilities, detached houses, commercial facilities and public facilities in the neighborhood, for use by pure hydrogen-fed fuel cell systems.
The purposes of the project include:
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Demonstration of technology for distributing hydrogen by pipeline (hydrogen is given an odor)
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Demonstration of pure hydrogen-fed fuel cell systems
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Demonstration of the combination of fuel cell systems with photovoltaic and power storage systems (verification of power distribution systems and demonstration of operability as emergency generators)
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Demonstration of hydrogen filling to cartridges for fuel cell forklifts and fuel cell assisted bicycles, etc., using a low-pressure hydrogen recharge system at a DIY store in the area
This is the world's first example of a community-oriented hydrogen distribution demonstration project, covering not only residential houses but also commercial and public facilities.
A)Fracking our Future: the Corrosive Influence of Extreme Energy
Following in the wake of shale gas and coal-bed methane (CBM) extraction is the spectre of underground coal gasification (UCG). But if we adopt these wholesale we could close off any hope of stepping back from the climate change brink, says campaign group Frack Off
The earthquakes caused by the first attempt to frack a shale gas well in the UK, almost two years ago, were a wake up call that has implications far beyond the damage caused to Cuadrilla’s well-bore. When your plan for getting gas is fracturing rock two miles under the Lancashire countryside, you know the cheap and easy energy is long gone.
The signs have been there for many years, from oil rigs pushing out into deeper and deeper water to the vast tar sands mining operations in Alberta, getting energy is taking increasing amounts of effort. People have been slow to connect the dots but now with the exploitation of unconventional gas threatening to spread thousands of wells, pipelines and other industrial infrastructure across the country, the issue of this relentless rise in energy extraction effort is finally beginning to get the attention that it deserves.
Like yeast growing in a vat, the fundamental question has always been whether industrial society will be poisoned by it’s own waste (alcohol in the case of yeast) before it runs out of resources (sugar). While significant attention has been paid to the relentless build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, worrying about running out fossil fuels has been very much a fringe activity.
The answer to this question has now become somewhat clearer, though it is much more nuanced than most people would expect. Rather than destruction by environmental crisis (“climate change”) or economic crisis (“peak oil”) we face an intricately linked combination of the two (“extreme energy”). This is not to deny the importance of either climate change or peak oil, but they not only have the same cause but are happening in the context of each other, so neither can be viewed in isolation.
Unsustainable energy
As our society’s unsustainable consumption of energy depletes easier to extract resources, it is driving the exploitation of evermore extreme and damaging energy sources. From fracking to the push to build a string of new biomass power stations which will devour the world’s remaining forests and the plans for a wave of new, more dangerous, nuclear power stations, energy extraction is becoming much more destructive.
In the past the dominant environmental impact of exploiting fossil fuels was the impact of the carbon emissions associated with burning them but as the effort required for energy extraction has grown, so have the environmental consequences of the extraction processes themselves. The poster child for this effect are the Athabasca tar sands in Alberta, but across the globe, from the Arctic Ocean to the rainforests of Borneo, energy extraction is driving increasing environmental destruction.
A common propaganda tool is to portray such concerns as a stark choice between economic growth and environmental preservation, but in reality extreme energy is as damaging to people’s economic well-being as it is to the environment.
As extraction effort grows, a greater fraction of economic activity must be allocated to the energy sector. In a market economy the mechanism by which this is achieved is, of course, rising energy prices, which will have the effect of diverting resources away from other activities.
In the last decade the fraction of the global economy devoted to energy extraction has almost tripled, to over 10 percent of GDP. If the use of more extreme extraction methods increases then an even greater proportion of the worlds resources must be sacrificed to these efforts.
This path leads to a world where energy extraction dominates the economy, and the majority of the population lives in its shadow. Look at the Niger Delta to see what such a world looks like.
The greatest threat
In the UK unconventional gas is by far the greatest threat. Despite the North Sea in terminal decline and increasing pressure on imports there is an insidious push to increase our dependence on gas. Fracking is seen as the way to achieve this but even if is feasible, it would require drilling of tens of thousands of wells and the devastation of the huge swathes of countryside. This will result in toxic and radioactive water contamination, air pollution, severe health effects in human and animals and increased greenhouse gas emissions all for a very short term hit of extremely expensive gas.
Following in the wake of shale gas and coal-bed methane (CBM) is the even more dire spectre of underground coal gasification (UCG) which involves partially burning coal underground and bringing the resulting gases to the surface. UCG has an even worse record of environmental contamination and could potentially emit enough carbon to raise global temperatures by up to 10 degrees Celsius.
A wholesale adoption of fracking and associated methods would close off perhaps our last chance to step back from the brink. Extreme energy requires a dedication to energy production to the exclusion of all else, which would radically alter the structure of our society.
Increasingly, more expensive energy infrastructure must be built, which will divert huge amounts resources away from worthwhile activities. It will quickly become the case that the largest single consumer of the energy produced will be energy extraction processes themselves. We will end up on a treadmill running faster and faster just to stand still as everything falls apart around us.
The decision we face is between prioritising abstract notions of profit and growth or the real well-being of communities and ecosystems. The two can no longer pretend to coexist.
It's dinnertime but there's no food in the house, so you get in your car and drive to the grocery store. You walk the aisles browsing for something to buy. You pick up chicken and a pre-made salad, then return home to enjoy your meal. Consider the ways your seemingly simple trip to the market affected the environment.
Driving to and from the store contributed carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The electricity required to light the store was powered by coal, the mining of which ravaged an Appalachian ecosystem. The salad ingredients were grown on a farm treated with pesticides that washed into local streams, poisoning fish and aquatic plants (which help keep the air clean). The chicken was grown on a massive factory farm a long distance away, where animal waste produced toxic levels of atmospheric methane. Getting the goods to the store required trucks, trains and more trucks -- all of which emitted carbon.
Even the smallest human actions initiate environmental change. How we heat our homes and power our electronics, how we get around, what we do with our garbage, where our food comes from -- all of these put a strain on the environment beyond what it's designed to support.
Taken at a societal level, human behavior changes the environment in dramatic ways. The Earth's temperature has increased by one degree Fahrenheit since 1975 [source: National Geographic]. The polar ice caps are shrinking at a rate of 9 percent a decade [source: National Resources Defense Council].
We hurt the environment in more ways than you could possibly imagine. Misguided construction, irrigation and mining can deface the natural landscape and disrupt important ecological processes. Aggressive fishing and hunting can deplete entire stocks of species. Human migration can introduce alien competitors to native food chains. Greed can lead to catastrophic accidents and laziness to environmentally destructive practices.
So what are the worst offenders? Here are the top 10.
Garbage is a blemish on the landscape, and sometimes hazardous waste ends up in landfills as well.Image Credit: Digital Vision
10. Dam Follies
Sometimes public works projects don't work out so well for the public. Meant to generate clean energy, dam projects in China have ravaged their surroundings by flooding cities and environmental waste sites and increasing the risk of natural disasters.
The re-routed river has also greatly increased the risk of landslides along its banks, home to hundreds of thousands of people. It's estimated that another half-million people might be displaced by landslides along the Yangtze by the year 2020 [source: International Rivers]. And landslides choke rivers with silt, further depleting the ecosystem.
Scientists have recently linked dams to earthquakes. The Three Gorges reservoir is built atop two major fault lines, and hundreds of small tremors have occurred since it opened. Scientists have suggested that the catastrophic 2008 earthquake in Sichuan Province, which left 80,000 people dead, was exacerbated by water build-up at the Zipingpu Dam, less than half a mile from the earthquake's primary fault line. The phenomenon of dams causing earthquakes, known asreservoir-induced seismicity, is caused by water pressure building up underneath the reservoir, which in turn increases pressure in the rocks and acts to lubricate fault lines already under strain. An earthquake caused by Three Gorges Dam would present a humanitarian disaster of untold proportions.
Built to control the Yangtze River's flooding, the Three Gorges Dam in central China has instead caused flooding in surrounding areas and a host of other problems.Image Credit: AP Photo/Xinhua/ Du Huaju
9. Overfishing
"There are plenty of fish in the sea" might not be so true anymore. Mankind's appetite for seafood has emptied our oceans to such a degree that experts worry many species can't replenish themselves.
According to the World Wildlife Federation, the global fishing fleet is 2.5 times larger than what our oceans can support. More than half of the world's fisheries are already gone, and one-quarter are "overexploited, depleted or recovering from collapse." Ninety percent of the ocean's large fish -- tuna, swordfish, marlin, cod, halibut, skate and flounder -- have been fished out of their natural habitats. It's estimated that unless something changes, stocks of these fish will disappear by 2048 [source: Worm et al.].
Advances in fishing technology are the main culprit. Today's commercial fishing boats are basically floating factories equipped with fish-finding sonar. They drop massive nets the size of three football fields that can sweep up an entire school of fish in minutes. Once a commercial fishing boat stakes a claim on an area, it's estimated that the fish population will decline by 80 percent within 10 to 15 years [source: World Wildlife Federation].
8. Invasive Species
We've been moving species around the globe since the dawn of the Age of Exploration. While bringing your favorite pet or plant along may make a new place feel a bit more like home, it can also throw the natural balance out of order. Introducing invasive flora and fauna has proven to be one of the most damaging things mankind has done to the environment.
In the United States, 400 of the 958 species listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act are considered at risk because of competition with alien species [source: Pimentel, Zuniga and Morrison]. The Dodo bird is a good example. The Dodo went the way of the dino in part because cats, rats and pigs brought by European sailors to the Americas feasted on its nest and eggs. The wingless bird couldn't defend itself.
The problem of invasive species is most pronounced with non-vertebrate species. In the first half of the 20th century, a fungus from Asia wiped out more than 180 million acres (73 million hectares) of American chestnut trees. Blight such as this causes a domino effect: Ten moth species that depended on chestnut trees for survival became extinct as a result [source:Simberloff].
7. Coal Mining
The greatest risk to the environment presented by coal is climate change, but mining for the valuable resource endangers local ecosystems as well.
Market realities create grave risks to mountains in coal -- heavy regions, especially in the United States. Coal is a cheap source of energy - one megawatt of energy produced by coal costs $20 to $30, versus $45 to $60 for one megawatt of energy produced from natural gas [source: Moyers]. And one-quarter of the world's coal reserves are in the U.S.
Two of the most environmentally destructive forms of mining are mountain top removal and strip mining. In mountain-top removal mining, up to 1,000 feet (305 meters) might be shaved off the peak in order to scoop out the coal inside. The mountain is hollowed out as minerals are extracted. Strip mining is used when the coal is closer to the surface of the mountain. The top layers of the mountain face -- including trees and any creatures living in them -- are scraped away to extract valuable minerals.
Each practice lays waste to everything in its path. Vast swaths of old-growth forest are removed and dumped in nearby valleys. It's estimated that more than 300,000 acres (121,405 hectares) of hardwood forest in West Virginia have already been destroyed by mining [source: PBS]. By 2012, the Environmental Protection Agency estimates that an additional 2,000 square miles (5,180 square kilometers) of Appalachian forest will disappear through mountain top removal and strip mining [source: Goldenberg].
The question of what to do with the refuse compounds the environmental consequences. Usually the mining company simply dumps the rocks, trees and wildlife in a nearby valley. In West Virginia, Kentucky, Virginia and Tennessee, more than 1,000 miles (1,609 kilometers) of streams have been buried by strip mine refuse [source: PBS]. Not only does this destroy the natural ecosystem of the mountain and stream, it also dries up larger rivers and strangles ecosystems that feed on the higher-elevation streams. Industrial waste from the mine washes into river beds. In West Virginia, more than 75 percent of streams and rivers are polluted by mining and related industries [source: PBS].
Coal generates a lot of electricity, but is a fossil fuel that produces vast amounts of carbon emissions.Image Credit: Thinkstock/Comstock
6. Human Accidents
While most of the ways humans damage the environment occur over the course of years, some events can happen in an instant -- an instant with long-reaching consequences.
The 1989 Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska has had a lasting impact. Releasing almost 11 million gallons of crude oil into an otherwise unspoiled stretch of wilderness, the accident killed an estimated 250,000 seabirds, 2,800 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, 250 bald eagles, up to 22 killer whales and billions of salmon and herring eggs [source:Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council]. At least two species, Pacific herring and pigeon guillemots, have not recovered from the disaster. As recently as 2006, scientists continued to find traces of oil on beaches around the Sound [source: Weise].
It's too soon to estimate the damage to wildlife caused by the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, but the scope of the disaster appears unmatched in American history. At its peak, 60,000 barrels of oil, or 2.5 million gallons (9.5 million liters), leaked into the Gulf every day -- the highest volume spill in American history. Most early estimates place the damage to wildlife below that of the Exxon Valdez because of the lesser density of local species in the Gulf compared to Prince William Sound. Regardless, there's no question that traces of the spill will be around for years to come.
The 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico caused headlines and environmental concerns worldwide. This is an oil sheen off the coast of Louisiana.Image Credit: AP Photo/Gerald Herbert
5. Cars
America has long been considered the land of the automobile, so it should come as no surprise that one-fifth of all greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. comes from cars. There are more than 232 million vehicles on the roads in this country -- only a tiny portion of which are electric-powered or hybrid. And an average American car consumes 600 gallons (2271 liters) of gasoline a year [source: Environmental Defense Fund].
A single car emits 12,000 pounds -- that's right, pounds -- of carbon dioxide (or 5443 kilograms) every year in the form of exhaust [source: Environmental Defense Fund]. It would take 240 trees to offset that amount. In America, cars emit around the same amount of carbon dioxide as the country's coal-burning power plants. In 2004, U.S. cars and light trucks emitted 314 million metric tons (346 million tons) of carbon, which is one third of the nation's total carbon dioxide output. It would take a 50,000-mile-long (80,467-kilometer-long) coal train -- equal to 17 times the distance between New York and San Francisco -- to match the amount of carbon released into the environment by American cars every year. [source: Environmental Defense Fund].
Combustion in the car's engine produces fine particles of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and sulfur dioxide. In high quantities, these chemicals interfere with the human respiratory system, causing coughing, choking and reduced lung capacity. Cars also generate carbon monoxide, a poisonous gas formed by combustion of fossil fuels that blocks the transport of oxygen to the brain, heart and other vital organs.
And then there's all the oil required to keep our cars moving. Drilling for oil has significant environmental consequences in its own right. Land-based drilling displaces local species and, in remote regions, requires that roads be built out of dense forest. Marine drilling and shipping not uncommonly results in spills like the BP Gulf of Mexico catastrophe -- there have been a dozen spills of more than 40 million gallons (151,416,471 liters) across the world since 1978. Dispersants used to mitigate the effects can also kill marine life.
A single car emits 12,000 pounds of carbon dioxide every year in the form of exhaust.Image Credit: AP Photo/Toby Talbot
4. Unsustainable Agriculture
One common trend emerges in all the ways mankind hurts the environment: We fail to plan for the future. Nowhere is this seen as much as in how we raise our food.
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, current farming practices are responsible for 70 percent of the pollution in the nation's rivers and streams. Runoff of chemicals, contaminated soil and animal waste from farms has polluted more than 173,000 miles (278,417 kilometers) of waterways [source: Horrigan et al.]. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides increase nitrogen levels and decrease oxygen in the water supply. Even before the BP Oil Spill, the Gulf of Mexico suffered a "dead zone" the size of New Jersey from industrial run-off from factories and farms along the Mississippi River.
Pesticides used to protect crops from predators endanger bird and insect populations. For example, the number of honeybee colonies on U.S. farmland dropped from 4.4 million in 1985 to less than 2 million in 1997 [source: Horrigan et al.]. Exposure to pesticides weakened the bees' immune systems, making them more vulnerable to natural enemies.
Large scale industrial agriculture also contributes to global warming. The vast majority of meat in the world comes from industrial farms. On any given farm, tens of thousands of livestock are concentrated in small areas for economy of scale. Factory farms emit harmful gases from unprocessed animal waste, including methane, which contributes to global warming. Livestock literally wade in pools of their own waste, which ravages the soil and nearby forests -- not to mention creating a ghastly odor.
Farming is responsible for 70 percent of the pollution in U.S. rivers and streams.Image Credit: AP Photo/Mike Fiala
3. Deforestation
There was a time, not that long ago, when the majority of the land on this planet -- almost half of the United States, three-quarters of Canada and nearly all of Europe -- was covered in forests. Today, the world's forests are disappearing before our eyes.
The United Nations estimates that more than 32 million acres (12,949,941 hectares) of forest are lost each year, including 14.8 million acres (5,989,348 hectares) of primary forest -- lands not occupied or affected by human beings [source: FAO]. Seventy percent of the planet's land animals and plants live in forests, and the loss of their homes threatens the existence of an untold number of species [source: National Geographic].
The problem is particularly acute in tropical forests, especially rainforests. Rainforests cover 7 percent of the Earth's land area and provide a home to half of all the species on the planet [source: Lindsey]. At the current rate of deforestation, scientists estimate that the world's rainforests could disappear in 100 years [source: National Geographic].
Deforestation contributes to global warming. Trees absorb greenhouse gases -- so fewer trees means larger amounts of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere. They also help perpetuate the water cycle by returning water vapor to the atmosphere. Without trees, former forests can quickly become barren deserts, leading to more extreme temperature swings. When forests are burned down, carbon in the trees is released, contributing to global warming. Scientists estimate that Amazonian trees contain the equivalent of 10 years worth of greenhouse gases produced by humans [source: NASA].
Poverty is a root cause of deforestation -- most tropical forests are in Third World countries -- as are policies to encourage economic development in undeveloped areas. Loggers and farmers drive deforestation. In most cases, a subsistence farmer, crowded into pioneer lands by overpopulation, will cut down trees for a farm plot.
The farmer typically burns the trees and vegetation to create a fertilizing layer of ash. This is called slash-and-burn farming. The risks of erosion and flooding are increased. Soil nutrients are lost, and in a few years, the land often proves unable to support the very crops for which the trees were cut down [source: Lindsey].
In slash-and-burn agriculture, forests are decimated make room for crops. Here forest rangers confiscate wood after a raid on an illegal logging site in Aceh province, Indonesia.Image Credit: AP Photo/Heri Juanda
2. Global Warming
The average surface temperature of the Earth has increased by 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit (0.8 degrees Celsius) in the last 130 years, and by 1 F (0.56 C) since 1975 [source: National Geographic]. Global ice caps are melting at an alarming rate - since 1979, more than 20 percent of the global ice cap has disappeared. Sea levels are rising, causing flooding and, according to a bevy of scientists, influencing catastrophic natural disasters around the globe.
Global warming is caused by the greenhouse effect, in which certain gases trap heat from the sun in the atmosphere. Since 1990, yearly emissions of greenhouse gases have gone up by about 6 billion metric tons (6.61 billion tons) worldwide, an increase of more than 20 percent [source: National Geographic].
The gas most responsible for global warming is carbon dioxide, which accounts for 82 percent of all greenhouse gases in the United States [source: Energy Information Administration]. Carbon dioxide is produced through combustion of fossil fuels, mostly in cars and coal-powered factories. In 2005, global atmospheric concentrations of the gas were 35 percent higher than they were before the Industrial Revolution [source: Environmental Protection Agency]. America's transportation and industrial sectors each account for around 30 percent of the country's greenhouse gas emissions [source: Pew Climate].
Global warming could lead to natural disasters, large-scale food and water shortages and devastating outcomes for wildlife. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the sea level could rise between 7 and 23 inches (17.8 and 58.4 centimeters) by the end of the century. Rises of just 4 inches (0.9 meters) of sea level, and much of the world's population lives near coastal areas. More than a million species face extinction from disappearing habitat, changing ecosystems and acid rain.
Since 1979, more than 20 percent of the global ice caps have disappeared.Image Credit: AP Photo/John McConnico
1. Overpopulation
Overpopulation "is the elephant in the room that nobody wants to talk about," says Dr. John Guillebaud, professor of family planning and reproductive health at University College in London. "Unless we reduce the human population humanely through family planning, nature will do it for us through violence, epidemics or starvation." [source: Guardian]
The world's population has grown from 3 billion to 6.7 billion in the past 40 years. Seventy-five million people -- the equivalent of the population of Germany -- are added to the planet every year, or more than 200,000 people every day [source: peopleandplanet.net]. The Earth's population is projected to exceed 9 billion by the year 2050.
In that same time period, the population of the U.S. grew from 200 million to more than 303 million. By 2050, it's projected to be 420 million.
More people means more waste, more demand for food, more production of consumer goods, more need for electricity, cars and everything. In other words, all the factors that contribute to global warming will be exacerbated.
Increased demand for food will force farmers and fishermen to exploit already-fragile ecosystems. Forests will be cleared as cities and suburbs expand, and to make room for more farmland. Strains on endangered species will increase. In rapidly developing countries such as China and India, increasing energy demands are expected to accelerate carbon emissions. In short, more people means more problems.
DURING THE VARIOUS SESSIONS,INTERESTING PRESENTATIONS WERE SEEN,WHICH
ENLIGHTENED US ,ABOUT THE FUTURE ENERGY POLICIES ,WHICH SHOULD BE CREATED.
BEING MORE PRECISE WE FOLLOWED
A)ENERGY EFFICIENCY IS NOT SUFFICIENT.WHAT ARE POSSIBLE SUFFICIENCY STRATEGIES?
ON 9/4/11 AT ULB (UNIVERSITE LIBRE DE BRUXELLES)
B)HIGH LEVEL OPENING OF THE EU CONFERENCE ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY POLICY
ON 12/4/11 AT EUROPEAN COMMISSION - CHARLEMAGNE
C) ENERGY DAYS PIVEX PLATFORM AND SMART ENERGY NETWORKS
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS ROMANIA
ON 13/4/11 AT RESIDENCE HOTEL PALACE
D)COMPARING MARINE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH,EUROPEAN OCEAN ENERGY ASSOCIATION
ON 14/4 AT CHARLEMAGNE
E)ICT FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY
ON 14/4/11 AT COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS
GENERALLY SPEAKING A LOT OF IMPORTANT STAKEHOLDERS WERE GATHERED ,WHO DISCUSSED IN DEPTH THE ENERGY PROBLEM
THANK YOU ,
HAPPY EASTER TO OUR CHRISTIAN BROTHERS
AGGELOS CHARLAFTIS
BELOW IT IS PRESENTED AN INTERESTING ESSAY AS :
An informational guide to available high-tech efficient energy systems
It is no mystery now that depleting fossil fuel reserves and greenhouse
gas emissions are problems that must be dealt with, especially in urban
areas. The first of many steps are being taken by setting goals for cleaner
and more efficient power generation, however, meeting these goals is beyond
the capability of current methods. The answer to reaching and surpassing
expectation may be to implement cutting edge and innovative technologies.
In this informational guide, some of the newest technologies will be
explained in a manner that can reach those who do not have a technical
background. The intention is to inform people of some potential technologies
that are currently available, whose information may not be accessible. We
hope that education will aid in the development and implementation of these
innovative solutions and lead us into a cleaner and greener future.
Focusing on London Borough of Merton, we will discuss several technologies
that could aid in solving some of the problems with CO2 emissions, high
fuel prices and waste disposal.
A)Combined Heat and Power
B) Hydrogen Fuel Cells
C) Pyrolysis
D) Anaerobic Digestion
Combined Heat and Power
The combined heat and power (CHP) concept is quite simply the generation of heat and
electricity from a single source; it represents the most efficient way to generate heat and
electricity. During conventional power generation,excess heat is usually wasted. CHP systems utilize
the waste heat, achieving overall machine efficiencies of 80% and more. Energy costs can be
significantly reduced while being environmentally friendly as GHG emissions are also reduced.
Furthermore, many manufacturers today engineer machines to utilize a variety of fuel sources
including renewable bio-fuels.
In addition to reduction in energy use and carbon emissions, the are a number of
commercial benefits including government funding and avoidance of the Climate Change Levy.
DIVERSITY OF FUEL
Natural Gas - Biogas - Diesel - Propane
CASE STUDY: WOKING
Since 1991, the London Borough of Woking has installed over 60 independent reciprocating engine CHP machines across the borough. Each machine is connected together by a private wire network owned by the energy services company, Thamesway Energy Ltd, which is 100%
owned by the borough. The borough also includes renewable sources such as photovoltaics into the network. By 2003 the borough was 99.85% off of the national grid. As a result, from
1991 to 2002 Woking has reduced energy consumption by 43.8% (170,170,665 kWh) and cut carbon emissions by 71.5% (96,588 tones). Nitrous Oxides (NOx) and Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) emissions have been cut down by 68% and 73.4% respectively. Total savings for the Borough in 11 years have amounted to £4.9 million pounds.
For more information visit:
http://www.aircogen.co.uk/
http://www.clarke-energy.co.uk/
http://www.cogenco.co.uk/
http://www.energ.co.uk/chp.asp
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
Some of the most promising technology for the future of power generation is fuel cells. Fuel cells
represent the cleanest production of heat and electricity currently available. Operating through a non-combustion based, non-mechanical process, fuel cells are able to achieve very low GHG emission and excellent efficiency.
They are versatile and fuel flexible, tending to almost any size application and deliver consistent reliable power,even from renewable fuels. There is currently large scale research and development in many countries to overcome the difficulties of commercialization; however the technology is still largely immature and remains expensive compared to other mature technology.
BASIC PRINCIPAL
Hydrogen fuel cells operate on a principal originally
demonstrated in 1839 by Welsh scientist Sir William Grove.
He discovered an electrochemical process involving
hydrogen and oxygen in a cell that produces electricity and
heat.
BASIC PROCESS
1. Hydrogen rich fuel flows into the anode, the negative terminal
2. Air flows into the cathode, the positive terminal
3. The electrochemical reaction is induced by the catalyst and occurs across the electrolyte
4. DC electricity is produced and is fed to the work load (light bulb, motor, grid network)
5. Heat, water and CO2 (if pure hydrogen is not used) are exhausted
TYPES
There are many types of fuel cells, however four have
proven to be well suited for stationary power and cogeneration.
A) Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)
B) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
C)Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
D) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
Each type of fuel cell offers different characteristics:
CASE STUDY: WOKIING PARK
In September, 2003 the London Borough of Woking installed a UTC PC25 PAFC fuel cell with to
provide heat and electricity to the leisure center and pool area. The fuel cell has performed as expected
operating at 37% electrical efficiency. The overall efficiency has been less than expected, at 57%, as
not all heat output has been utilized. The fuel cell has brought great results to the Borough in terms of fuel consumption and carbon emissions.
1) Carbon Emission savings of over 1,000 tonnes/yr (compared to fossil fuel combustion methods)
2) 1 million liters of surplus pure water Each PC25 fuel cell is rated to generate 200kW
of electrical power and 270 kW thermal power. This is enough power for approximately 57 three bedroom households
For more information visit:
http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/
http://www.fuelcelltoday.com
http://www.utcfuelcells.com Fuel Cells
PyrolysisOne of many new alternatives to typical waste disposal methods is pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is a quickly
developing waste-to-energy technology that is cleaner and more efficient than methods such as incineration and landfilling. It is an advanced thermal treatment that uses extremely high temperatures in the absence of oxygen to break down waste and other organic material into more useful fuel products including syngas,pyrolysis oil, and char.
With the expected growths in waste generation and reductions in landfill availability, pyrolysis is an
appealing economic and environmental solution for urban areas and municipalities working to reduce the amount of waste being sent to landfills. Pyrolysis is designed to not only help minimize waste, but to generate fuel for local energy production in use with CHP and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
WASTE TREATMENT
BASIC PROCESS
BY- PRODUCTS
1) Synthetic Gas (Syngas) - Gas by-product made up of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane. Syngas can be used as a fuel to generate heat and/or electricity, or as a chemical
for industrial use.
2) Pyrolysis Oil (bio-fuel) - Liquid residue that can be used as a fuel to generate heat and/or electricity, or a chemical for industrial use, fertilization, etc.
3) Char - Solid residue containing carbon and ash.Char is typically disposed of but may be used as
an alternative fuel or recycled.
CASE STUDY: BURGAU, GERMANY
In 1983, WasteGen UK supplied a Materials Energy and Recovery plant to Burgau, Germany. The plant is a unique combination of a pyrolysis plant and power generation plant and was designed to treat municipal solid waste (MSW). It was built just outside the city on approximately 1 hectare of land,
and began full operation in 1984. The plant currently processes around 34,000 tonnes of MSW a year from 120,000 residents.
Any solid by-products produced by the plant are disposed of in a nearby landfill.
Gas, however, is typically used to generate energy. Syngas is burned in a gas boiler to create
steam which drives a 2.2 MW steam turbine for electricity production. This is enough electricity to power over 4000 residential homes. Any excess steam is piped to a next door greenhouse for heating.
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a growing technology in Europe and around the US for the treatment
of waste and biomass. It is most commonly referred to as biological treatment or a waste-to-energy technology.
Unlike typical methods for waste disposal, AD uses naturally growing bacteria to break down biodegradable organic waste in the absence of oxygen and convert it into a more useful by-products including biogas, liquid digestate, and fibre digestate.
Commercial manufacture and availability of AD plants has only begun to increase in the past few decades,along with system designs for the treatment of municipal solid waste. However, with the projected growths in waste generation and reductions in landfill space availability,
anaerobic digestion is becoming a much more attractive and economically feasible alternative for municipal solid waste disposal in urban areas.
WASTE TREATMENT
THE AD PROCESS
Step 1: Pre-Treatment: Materials not suitable for digestion are
removed from the incoming waste.
Step 2: Waste Digestion : Incoming waste is moved into a large,
enclosed tank, known as a digester, which is heated and rid of all oxygen. Bacteria grow inside the digester and break down complex waste matter into simpler materials.
Step 3: Gas Recovery: 30-60% of the incoming waste is converted to a
biogas by-product which is cleaned, collected, and stored till it can be used.
Step 4: Residue Treatment: Bioliquid and biosolid by-products are collected
and treated to be used as soil conditioners or composting material.
BY-PRODUCTS
I) Biogas A gas made up of 60% methane and 40% carbon
dioxide, that can be burned to generate heat and/or electricity.
II)Bioliquid (Liquid Residue) - Liquid by-product that can be used as fertilizer to improve soils.
III)Biosolid (Fibre Residue) - Solid byproduct that can be used as a soil conditioner or compost.
*Based on various sources
CASE STUDY: VALORGA PLANT
In 1994, Organic Waste Systems (OWS) began
operation of the Valorga plant in Tilburg, Netherlands. The plant is located next to a landfill on 1.6 hectares of land and currently takes in waste from approximately 380,000 people. It has the potential for an annual waste capacity of 52,000 tonnes of VGF (vegetable, fruit, and garden
waste), but usually takes in around 42,000 tonnes of VGF per year.
Studies have shown that the plant produces around 18,000 tonnes of compost yearly
and 82m3-106m3 of biogas per tonne of waste. The biogas is refined to a quality comparable to natural gas and burned to generate around 18GWh of energy a year. 3.3GWh of this is used to heat the AD plant, while the remaining 14.7GWh is sold to gas distributors. Initial investment of
the plant cost £12 million, but the plant is now bringing in an annual average revenue of £2.2 million.
CHP References:
Greenpeace Briefing. (2006). Decentralising energy the Woking case study. Retrieved April 21, 2006 from http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/MultimediaFiles/Live/FullReport/7468.pdf
Taking Stock: Managing our impact. (n.d). Case Study 2: Woking Borough Council Energy Services. Retrieved April 19, 2006 from http://www.takingstock.org/Downloads/Case_Study_2-Woking.pdf
Cogenco Team (2006). CHP: An Overview. Retrieved April 21, 2006 from http://cogenco.co.uk/English/an_overview.html
Hydrogen Fuel Cell References:
MTU-Friedrichshafen. (2003). The high temperature fuel cell combined power heat energy generation for the future. MTU CFC Solutions. Retrieved February 05, 2006 from http://www.mtu-friedrichshafen.com/cfc/en/cfcs/cfcs.htm# Rocky Mountain Institute. (2005). Energy: Fuel Cells. Retrieved February 4, 2006 from http://www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid315.php
U.S. Department of Energy. (2005). Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, and Infrastructures Tecnologies Program. Retrieved February 4, 2006 from http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/
United Technologies Company. (2006). Pure Cell 200 Power Solution. UTC Power: Our Solutions. Retrieved February 05, 2006 from http://www.utcpower.com/fs/com/bin/fs_com_Page/0,5433,03100,00.html
Pyrolysis References:
BTG Biomass Technology Group. (2005). Bio-oil Applications. Retrieved April 20, 2006 from
http://www.btgworld.com/2005/html/technologies/bio-oil-applications.html
Compact Power. (n.d.). Renewable Energy from Waste. Retrieved April 20, 2006 from http://www.compactpower.co.uk/index.php
European Environment Agency. (January 2002). Biodegradable Municipal Waste Management in Europe. Part 3: Technology and Market Issues [Electronic Version]. Retrieved April 20, 2006 from http://www.environmental-center.com/articles/article1156/part3.pdf
Friends of the Earth. (October 2002). Briefing: Pyrolysis and Gasification [Electronic Version]. Retrieved February 5, 2006 from
http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/briefings/gasification_pyrolysis.pdf
Fortuna, F., Cornacchia, M., Mincarini, M., and Sharm, V. K.. (1997). Pilot Scale Experimental Pyrolysis Plant: Mechanical and
Operational Aspects. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 40-41, 403-417.
Gale, Steve. (2001). Modern Residuals Processing in Theory and Practice. Retrieved February 5, 2006 from
http://www.hatch.ca/Sustainable_Development/Articles/organics_processing_2001.pdf
Juniper Consultancy Services Ltd. (2003). Pyrolysis and Gasification Factsheet. Technology Reviews for the Waste, Environmental,
and Renewable Energy Sectors. Retrieved February 5, 2006 from
Smith, G. (October 2004). Pyrolysis Facility. Landfilling Our Resources is a Waste. Retrieved April 21, 2006 from
http://www.lacity.org/council/cd12/pdf/
Landfilling_Resources_MPA_Pyrolysis_Facility.pdf
WasteGen UK, Ltd. (n.d.). Generating Value from Waste: Pyrolysis Energy Recovery. Retrieved February 5, 2006 from
http://www.wastegen.com/template.htm
Anaerobic Digestion References:
Duerr, M., Gair, S., Cruden, A, McDonald, J. (2005). The Design of a Hydrogen Organic Fuel Source/Fuel Cell Plant. International
Hydrogen Energy Congress and Exhibition. Scotland, UK: University of Strathclyde.
Friends of the Earth. (November 2004). Briefing: Anaerobic Digestion [Electronic Version]. Retrieved February 11, 2006 from
http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/briefings/anaerobic_digestion.pdf
IEA Bioenergy. (July 2001). Biogas and More! System and Markets Overview of Anaerobic Digestion [Electronic Version].
Oxfordshire, UK: AEA Technology Environment.
Maunder, D.H., Brown, K.A., and Richards, K.M. (August 1995). Generating Electricity from Biomass and Waste.
Power Engineering Journal, 9(4), 188-196.
Ostrem, K. (May 2004). Greening Waste: Anaerobic Digestion for Treating the Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Wastes.
New York: Columbia University.
Verma, S. (May 2002). Anaerobic Digestion of Biodegradable Organics in Municipal Solid Wastes. New York: Columbia University.
Wannholt, L. (1999). Biological Treatment of Domestic Waste in Closed Plants in Europe – Plant Visit Reports.
RVF Report, 98:8. Malmo: RVF.
Waste. (May 2005). Fact Sheet: Anaerobic Digestion. Retrieved April 20, 2006 from http://www.waste.nl/page/248
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